Health services and sectors provided to patients are highly criticised in Nepal. Though the frequent blames upon health sectors may not appearfair and balanced, a numbers of criticisms criticscuriously make indicate that there are genuine reasons behind their fault finding. Criticisms may not be for the purpose of their ‘own sake’, they do revail the reality as well. Health workers’ nasty and intolerable behaviour, divided mentality, orientationless treatment and the reactions of patients dissatisfactions on their servicecauses criticisms in reference to health institutions in Nepal. The recurring cases of corruptions, criticisms, superfaciality seem to be something retualized routine for health related institutions andits heads which characterize with their underlying problems.
Everyone thinks that Tilganga is the excellent eye hospital in Nepal. I think, this statement has been no further reaveling the reality. I felt it when I visited this hospital as an eye patient two years ago as I had a terrible headache since a long. As I was returning from my college professing in the morning, I set off myself towards the hospital directly. When I reached in the permises of the hospital, there were many patients waiting for a turn to have their eyes checked up. It was exactly 10 am. There were some in the queues lining up themselves. Those who were in the lines were the old patients who had to register their names before 12 o’clock. I was one of them, who were in the queue waiting for the counter staff to come. It had been said that the time in between 10 to 10.30 am is a breakfast time. We, the patients were waiting tirelessly. There was no any option except that.They were all expecting the staff coming soon in the counter and giving them the file back which could initiate their check up. It had been already 10-15 minutes delay than the time prescribed for the breakfast. Nobody came to the counter.
After a few minutes, they came in the counter; we showed the cards given to us previously. There is a system of patients getting the cards if they once visited the hospital. It is supposed to show the cards before 12 noon and get his/her eyes check up. It was the second shift and perhaps the busiest hour, but there were no significant number of patients that day comparatively talking to any other days. In the counter, after looking at the file one of the staff said, ‘You should go in Room No. 1 and then Room No. 8.’ From the counter itself, the patients were distributed into different eye specialists in different rooms. The room that I went was split into two divisions, and there was the provision of examiningpatients both sides of Room No. 1. Our section had no doctor. I complained about the late coming of the doctor. Later on, I asked one of the staff about it, he replied in a suggestive manner‘You could go into the next section where there were the doctors examining the patients and have check up.’ Leaving others, two of us, went towards the next side. My eyes were examined and reffered to Room No. 10 where there was Dr. K. B. Khadka, who checked my eyes up. I was impressed by his simple and generous nature and realized true that the half of the illness of the patients can be cured by doctor’s friendly dealing. There was no delay in the process of examination upto this point of time.
After Dr. Khadka finshied examining, he asked me to go back to counter and repay the check up fees. I paid the fees and was suggested to go to Room No. 9 to have a more complicated examination. It was somehere outside of the main hospital building. There were many patients from all the way to Rautahat, Dolakha, Kavre, and I myself was from Surkhet hoping to have a smooth check up. But, it was something difficult, unsystematic and choatic with the ways the hospital staff were dealing with the patients. It seemed there were complete absence of rules; they believed as ifthey were the rule makers and breakers both. It was not at all systematic; whoever could have already contacted through phones could enter easily and have their examination. I questioned to myself: How could the concept of new Nepal be materalized in these circumtances? There were some patients going to and returning back after their check up. There was a big flow of patients. Those who were waiting for their turn were almost asleep, some were feeling dizzy, some were bored.
One and half an hour waiting in the clumsy corridor, I could not tolerate anymore - the unordinary behaviour of those nurses and and others who were the main cause of delay. Their behaviour could not be digestible it seemed as if they were just cutting jests with the children. They were just killing the time anyway maybe it was government owned hospital and might be guided by the false notion. It was one of the best ways how they could do nothing and pretend themselves busy giving a false impression like busy people. It was their natural tendency which can not be given up so easily that could be reflected through their activities. I went towards them and commented against their nasty behaviour. Then, only they started to check up the patients without any disturbance and delay motive. It shows that the staff of the hospital have been habituated with the fully individualitic and ill behaviour and not being at all responsible towards the patients. I opine that the hospital is a sacred place to serve those who seek help, hope for a whole treatment in a friendly manner. Instead of it, I realized Tilganga Eye Hospital is no more operated with the spirit of service which was felt so obviously. There were four desks where patients were found unnecessarily taking time in the examinaition of their eyes. I termed this room (Room No. 9) as ‘lazy women’sdepartment’ as the women personnel were unintendingly performing their duty. Those who were waiting for their turn were dumbfounded; they even could not open their mouths against staff and doctors’ bitter behaviour and humanity-less treatment.
When I was waiting outside, one of the nurses came and asked who the patients was. I said it was me. She inquired about me and my status. After a long, tiring and boring hours of waiting, my turn came and my eyes were examined. I got the report, it was to be submitted to Dr. Khadka in Room No. 10, but he had already gone out. I thought he might have gone for lunch, as the lunch time was from 12.30 to 1.00. I also expressed my disagreement with the nurse that I earlier met saying who I could show my report to. I was very confused to whom I could show my report.
In the meantime, I saw a couple standing worried just infont of the gate.After a brief inquiry, I came to know that a woman patient with her husband of about 40-45 years coming there to have treatment of her weary eye. They had come from Nuwakot, it is according to her husband, 80-86 KM away from Kathmandu. Coming and going on the one hand, may make them tired. On the other hand, it was not practical to go and come back form Kathmandu to Nuwakot. Her case was quitre complicated as her right eye was much red and had with a sore. They were worried about her eye, but what could they do? Just nothing.
There was no one helping them or speaking for them so that the hospital adminsitaration will listen to them. So, I thought it was good for them to help because they were in a great obstacle in their life. No others were helping them, or intending to assist them, and then forgetting my own treatment, I advocated for them. Lastly, the staff asked them to get hospital the following day at 9 am. I knew that they were in the hospital in course of treatment for the last 3 days. They achieved nothing during those past days; just they had lost the money, efforts, and thought that they were just having futile days in Kathmandu. After a few minutes talk, I noticed thatthey had confirmed Dr. Suman but he was absent that day. Their waiting was like that of Waiting for Godot. Will they get good treatment with hospitable manner or not? This query will be rest in the womb of future days in Tilganga Eye Hospital, Kathmandu. They are not still sure and certain whether Godot (the day and the doctor) will come or not to serve them, and to treat them.
With this particular incident, my perspective towards Tilganga Eye Hospital was totally changed. I found the institution hollow nothing more. No path of progress it goes with ratherit attaches itself with a principle of regression. The notions such as: expertism, the dedicated staff, the sense of service and hospitable manner of treatment and ease and comfort the patients need were turned to be false in the hospital premises. The reality was deconstructed or perfectly u-turned. Instead of getting excellent treatment, one can getintense troture as a patient that I realized as a vicitim. Wherever I have eye problem, I better find myself in an eye clinic where at least I find satisfaction. I realize that the pollutant has already entered inside the institution. I would like to suggest to the stockholders that the hospital adminsitration should move according to the test of time, the flavours of the patients having essential improvement. Most importantly, thehospital administration should comprehend the problems of patients as oftheir own where the sense of service truly becomes intensified and the name of the hospital remains inscribed with good memories in the heart of common people.
I heard:
It is the day you were born,
Now, I guess it is the day not to mourn
Let us enjoy and have maximum fun
Keep up often your birthday a nice run!!
Pedagogical Conclusion from Structuralism for ELT and its Implications in the History of ELT in Nepal
Introduction
In a generic sense, pedagogical conclusion from structuralism for English language teaching refers to the points of synopsis made out of structuralism regarding the science or profession of teaching. In another word, we can say how structuralism can be found to be useful and can contribute in connection to English language teaching in a nutshell is called the pedagogical conclusion from structuralism for English language teaching. As teaching is regarded to be a profession of complicated nature, definitely English language teaching in Nepalese context is really challenging that demands much more physical or psychological effort along with many others. The teaching of English language has become challenging rather than being rewarding which is a stark reality in Nepalese context. There may be multiple reasons behind it what makes teaching English language challenging in a real sense.
In order to ease the process of teaching language, there emerges some theories, approaches, methods and techniques that help a great deal in this regard which are the outcomes of prominent linguists, grammarians, phoneticians, semanticians, pragmaticians, theorists, psychologists, experts in teaching fields and so on. Regarding how approaches and methods help in language teaching Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers say, ‘The study of approaches and methods provides teachers with a view of how the field of language teaching has evolved.’ Further they say, ‘Approaches and methods can be studied not as prescriptions for how to teach but as a source of well-practices, which teachers can adapt or implement on their own needs. Experience in using different teaching approaches and methods can provide teachers with basic teaching skills that they can later add to or supplement as they develop teaching experience (Richards J. C. and Rodgers T. S. /2010: 16). In this way, we need to change our perception reading approaches and methods used in language teaching. Approaches and methods are the sources for the well- practices so that language teaching and learning becomes effective. The effectiveness of language teaching helps immensely in the achievement of learning goals. The sustainability and durability of learning in learners can be noticed tangibly.
It is relevant to talk about how structuralism is evolved, grown up and developed throughout the history of human knowledge as a school or movement. Structuralism was led by the prominent names such as Saussure, Piaget, Levi-Strauss and Barthes. The term structuralism was found to be used in a range of disciplines.It is an -ism which is thought to be the most revolutionary of type as it influences multiple minds and heterogeneous masses of people. It appeared as a movement or a phenomenon in the context of language for our purpose. It is such a method of analysis and organization of concepts in different faculties such as literature, linguistics, anthropology, psychology, etc. It is based on the explicit model of modern linguistics theory. These activities are done in terms of contrasting relations especially binary oppositions among sets of items within conceptual systems. It consists of some Russian formalists like Roman Jakobson and mostly French writers who apply to literature the methods and analytic terms adopted by Ferdinand de Saussure.
Structuralism is a popular theory in language, literature and several other social sciences that considers any text as a structure whose various parts only have meaning when they are considered in relation to each other. Talking about the structure in language, the structural linguistics considers language as a system of related structures. It means language consists of many structures that make up of a common whole having a purpose of conveying the information and messages to the concerned that is to say to speakers and hearers. Language has grammatical structures from the view point of grammar. From the view point of phonemes, there are phonological structures. At a morpheme’s level, it has morphological structures. In terms of a phrase, there are phrase structures and in terms of a clause, there are clause structures. Thus, a language teacher desiring to teach language has to start with a structure, and s/he becomes successful enough in his/her goals.
Structuralism is not only a theory rather than it is a method of analyzing a subject which are in and around us as that of social sciences, psychology, language, literature which concentrates on the structure of a system and the relations between its elements, rather than on the function of those elements. A person who uses structuralist methods is a structuralist. Sassure, Jakobson, Levi Strauss, Piaget, are structuralists as they apply the structural methods in their researches. The seed of structuralism is found to be in Course in General Linguistics, a book published after Sassure’s death on the basis student notes where he focused not on the structural dichotomy langue and parole and later on after a long run, it was called a theory semiotics.
Before we exactly talk about the pedagogical conclusion from structuralism for ELT and its implications in the history of ELT in Nepal is essential to discuss on: ‘what structuralism?’ over here. According to Thomas Mautner structuralism is ‘a kind of theory predominantly concerned with the description of structures. …. ….. The approach is often linked to an assumption that structures-relationships between particulars-rather than the particulars themselves, are basic to reality, to human knowledge, or both.’ (Mautner T. 2004/412,13) ‘Structuralism examines aspects of human society, including language and social institutions, as integrated structures or systems in which the parts have no real existence on their own, but only derive meaning and significance from their place within the system.’ (Martin Gray: 1999) Structuralism is a popular trend in language and literary criticism that focuses on the existence of language on the basis of its basic units such as morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, sentences. Language teaching can be only possible if the language teacher gives every tits and bits of language equal priority and goes ahead in the classroom to teach the students. Martin Gray further says with a citation of example. The basic unit of meaning in language, the phoneme is seen to derive its meaning not from any inherent qualities in itself, but because of its difference from other sounds.
Thus, structuralism is a general approach in various academic disciplines that explores the relationships between fundamental elements of some kind, upon which some higher mental, linguistic, social, cultural etc "structures" are built, through which then meaning is produced within a particular person, system, or culture.
Gordon Marshall under structuralism puts forward his view as:’ Basic to the approach is the idea that we can discern underlying structures behind the often fluctuating and changing appearances of social reality. The model is Saussure’s structural linguistics and the notion that a language can be described in terms of basic set of rules which govern the combination of sounds to produce meanings.’
Structuralism appeared in academic psychology for the first time in the 19th century and then reappeared in the second half of the 20th century, when it grew to become one of the most popular approaches in the academic fields that are concerned with analyzing language, culture, and society. The work of Ferdinand de Saussure concerning linguistics is generally considered to be a starting point of the 20th century structuralism. The term of "structuralism" itself appeared in relation to FrenchanthropologistClaude Lévi-Strauss' works, and gave rise, in France, to the "structuralist movement", which gathered thinkers such as psychoanalystLacan, Foucault or Althusser and Poulantzas' structural Marxism. One should note that almost all members of this so-called movement denied that they were part of it.
Defining structuralism Dictionary of Philosophy, 1984 says, structuralism, a concrete scientific methodological trend setting research the task of revealing the structure of the objects. Structuralism was evolved by some humanities, linguistics, literary criticism, psychology, etc.) at the beginning of 20th century as a reaction to positivist evolutionism. It uses the structural methods of research produced by mathematics, physics, and other natural sciences.
There is a significant contribution of many scholars associated in the promotion of structuralism have really devoted in different fields of human concerns. Talking especially the roles by various structuralists, there comes the name of Ferdinand de Saussure in linguistics, Levi Strauss in ethnology, and L. S. Vygotsky and Jean Piajet in psychology are considered prominent. Particularly talking on Saussure’s linguistic approach that focuses on examining how the elements of language related to each other in the present that is, 'synchronically' rather than 'diachronically'. In the development of system of linguistic signs he argues that signs were composed of two parts, a signifier and another is signified. The signifier is the sound pattern of a word, either in mental projection - as when we silently recite lines from a poem to ourselves - or in actual, physical realization as part of a speech act and a signified is the concept
Tyson thinks ‘structuralism as a method of systematizing human experience that is sued in many different fields of study: for example, linguistics, anthropology, sociology, psychology, and literary studies.’ (Lios T./210) She thinks structures are not physical entities; they are conceptual frameworks that we use to organize and understand physical entities. A structure is any conceptual system. To be a structure, according to her is following three properties are essential: 1) wholeness, 2) transformation, and 3) self-regulation. Wholeness means the system functions as a unit; it is not merely a collection of independent items. The whole is different form the sum of its total parts. Transformation means that the system is not a static, it is dynamic, capable of change. New material is always being structured by the system. Language as a structural system is capable of transforming its basic components (phonemes) into new utterances (words and sentences). Self-regulation means that the transformations of which a structure is capable never lead beyond its own structural system. The elements endangered by transformations (for example, new linguistic utterances) always belong to the system and obey its laws.
To Mautner, ‘there are three characteristics by which structures differ from mere aggregates: 1) the nature of an element depends, at least in part, on its place in the structure, i.e. its interrelations with other elements (holism); 2) the structure is not static, but allows for change within. For instance, new sentences can be created within a language-structure (dynamism); 3) the characteristic of the structures can be understood without reference to factors external to it. We can understand the function of a word, say ‘dog’ within a language-structure independently of whether any dogs exist (autarchy)’
There were many more who contributed in the field of structuralism. Among them, the Prague School structuralism is found to be devoted to phonemics. The Prague School sought to examine how sounds were related. The linguists under this school determined that the inventory of sounds in a language could be analyzed in terms of a series of contrasts, which is said to be distinctive features. Thus in English the sounds /t/ and /d/ represent distinct phonemes because there are cases (minimal pairs) where the contrast between the two is the only difference between two distinct words (e.g. 'tog' and 'dog'). This approach which is the by-product of structuralism is regarded standard in linguistics; it was revolutionary at the time.
Theoretical Perspective
Theoretically, structuralism does a great contribution in the various fields of human concerns as it has been influential in various affairs of human beings. Even in the teaching of English language, it is found to be remarkably important. While we talk about teaching learning activities either we have to discuss on psychology or linguistics of structural mode which is perceived as a branch of linguistics that deals mostly with the structures. Structural linguistics is that branch of linguistics emphasizing the significance of the interrelations between the elements that constitute a linguistic system. Many linguists define language as a system of system that has to be taught systematically. Obviously, we can’t teach language in an unorganized way without following a particular system, without a systematic order to abide and so on.
During the structural description of structuralism, the word ‘structural’ means to be for David Crystal (2003), ‘Within linguistics, ‘structural’ will be found in several contexts in phonology, grammar and semantics. Structural(ist) grammar, as a general term, is now a largely dated conception of grammatical analysis, though the emphases which characterized it may still be seen in several areas of applied linguistic studies…….. , and the term ‘structural’ is often given a special status as a part the exposition of grammatical model, e.g. the notion of structural description in Transformational Grammar.’
Structuralism has a root on a word that is structure. Structure is perceived in a generic sense as the way a thing or something is organized to make a complete whole. Structure for David Crystal is a term applied to the main abstract characteristic of a semiotic system. A language for example is a structure, in the sense that it is a network of interrelated units, the meaning of parts being specifiable only with reference top the whole. In this sense, the terms ‘structure’ and ‘system’ are often synonymous……… -as in ‘language is a structural system’ –is a tautology.
Theoretically, Ferdinand de Sassure laid the foundation to structural linguistics. It was developed between 1913 and 1915. Before Saussure, language was studied diachronically or in terms of the history of changes individual words over time. Saussure came up with a new view that was not to understand language as a collection of individual words with individual histories but as a structural system of relationships among words as they are used at a given point of time. To be exact, language should be studied synchronically.
Regarding the language study, there are many innovative approaches have come into existence with the exploration of new dimensions into human knowledge. These approaches are really thought to be boon in language study. The notion of synchronic and diachronic study of language is one of the dichotomies for the first time introduced by a prominent linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in his book ‘Course in General Linguistics’ in the entire linguistic field. Synchronic study of language is the study of the systematic interrelations of components of a single language at a particular time. For example, the language of present day Kathmandu can be the matter of synchronic study. It studies language systematically in an organized manner. The relationship among the parts and parcels contributing a particular language are the matters studied under the synchronic linguistics. The terms synchronic study of language or synchronic linguistics are the same semantically.
The synchronic study of language is more problematic than that of diachronic study of language: it is a state at an arbitrarily chosen time on the historical path language has traveled and route which it is going to continue traveling. Synchronic study of language is the description of a particular language at some point in time. If the language is studied on the basis of at certain stand point of time that is what we call the synchronic study of language. It is the theoretical study of language describing it being at a point. As it being the theoretical matter, it can be more complex. Synchronic linguistics ignores the state of change taken place in language. Saussure has put his central stress on synchronic study of language. It is given primary priority or preliminary emphasis to diachronic study of language. Most of the synchronic descriptions are of contemporary language states. Diachronic linguistics studies the historical aspect of language. It is an analysis of the revolution of a family of language or the changes within a particular language, over a long period of time. A study of Nepali language from the time of the earliest records, from the pre-mature state of origination in Sinja of Jumla to the present day or study of the change from old time of the earliest records to present through time is all about diachronic study of language. The aim of general synchronic linguistics is to set up the fundamental principles of any idiosyncratic system in language. The constituents of any language state are extensively studied in course of synchronic study of language. It studies the general property of signs. The general properties of the signs are considered as an integral part of synchrony. The system of signs is a more complex linguistic system. It is also thought that language is symbolic. Language involves signs in its system. Signs are entries that represent for other entries the way a plus sign (+) as it stand certain mathematical operation. While talking about signs in language, they are the sequences of sounds though these can be transferred into visual signs as in writing or the gestural signs of language of the deaf. It belongs to general grammar because only through language states that the different relations affecting grammar are established. Synchronic linguistics or synchronic study of language is generally much more difficult than the study of historical linguistics because historical linguistics studies language how a particular language has been altered chronologically. Synchronic aspect of language embodies such a study which explains in detail a language-state. Studying the language state under synchronic study of language means the practice of disregarding changes, alterations, modifications and modulations about the language. It does not regard even the changes with too little importance taken into account. It can be compared like just as mathematicians disregard infinitesimal qualities in certain calculations such as logarithms.
The study of synchronic study of language has the following attributes:
1. Synchronic study of language is a modern and scientific approach of studying language. It is the study of language that consists of scientific study of language establishing language as a science.
2. It is horizontal and structural. It is a static study of language.
3. It concentrates on underlying structure of language
4. It is general and applicable to all the languages
5. It covers the short time span
6. It focuses how meanings and utterances are generated ‘how’ is focused.
7. It is a language study as a whole
8. Synchronic study of language establishes language as a self –sufficient and autonomous system
9. It identifies both langue and parole linguistic creativity explored
10. Synchronic study of language is the study of language ‘state’ of particular time and space.
11. Synchronic study of language does have challenges of time, space and accuracy. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Sanskrit and Latin.
According to Crystal, this application of the term to paradigmatic relationships is not as widespread as the syntagmatic conception of ‘structure’. After the introduction and hot discussion about structuralism in the language readership, language is then understood as fusion of pluralistic strings of structures. Later on, phonological, syntactic, morphological, semantic, pragmatic, structures along with word structure, phrase structure, clause structure and sentence structures were came into existence. More importantly, syllable structure was perceived as a string of consonants and vowels.
What Structuralism Consists of as a Theory?
Structuralism as a theory emphasizes on:
a. The structure of language itself produces reality; that we can think only through language, and therefore our perceptions of reality are all framed by and determined by the structure of language not more than that.
b. That language speaks us; that the source of meaning is not an individual's experience or being, but the sets of oppositions and operations, the signs and grammars that govern language. Meaning doesn't come from individuals, but from the system that governs what any individual can do within it.
c. Rather than seeing the individual as the center of meaning, structuralism places the structure at the center, it's the structure that originates or produces meaning, not the individual self.
d. Language in particular is the center of self and meaning; I can only say "I" because I inhabit a system of language in which the position of subject is marked by the first personal pronoun, hence my identity is the product of the linguistic system I occupy.
e. The notions like syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships, language and parole, signifier and signified, synchronic and diachronic linguistics, underlying and surface structures came into ELT context.
e. Language is signs based science where there are relationships which can be either syntagmatic or paradigmatic ones. Linguistic signs by nature linear. Syntagmatic relationship is also termed as linear, sequential, horizontal or successive relationship, whereas, paradigmatic relationship is known with words like associative, substitutive vertical relationship.
Pedagogical Implications
Pedagogical implications here refer to the preparation of pre-requisites which is suggested or recommended before the actual application of something takes place. How can structuralism contribute for the purpose of teaching learning activities? Definitely, it can be one of the cardinal questions. While describing every type of theory no matter either psychological or linguistic; it is desirable to find out its usefulness, its implications and applications. Structural linguistic theory according to Moulton 1963 can have the following implications in the horizon of language teaching:
a. The priority is given to spoken rather than written language.
b. Language learning is basically a matter of developing a set of habits through drilling.
c. Teach the language, not about the language (avoid teaching grammar rules: Get learners to develop their skills through drill and practice- teach through analogy not analysis)
With the knowledge of structuralism , a teacher can teach words of various types in an easy and effective way. The teaching of words through prefixes and suffixes and possibilities to generate many words can really be helpful for language teachers and learners. Morphemes, morphs, allomorphs, identifying morphemes in a language, elements of words structures, word, stem, base, root , suffix, prefix, infix are some notions related to structuralism. These can have a great importance in language teaching. Teachers with knowledge about them make them proficient to teach.
Teaching grammatical units in a hierarchy a word constituting out of morphemes, a phrase constituting out of words, a clause constituting out of phrases, a sentence constituting out of clauses make a great sense in language teaching.
Structure-Oriented Classroom Activities
Language is a complex phenomenon in itself and teaching language as a whole is too complex entity. Therefore, structuralists give importance to teach language through some structures. As a school of thought that prescribes to teach students through parts to whole. In this sense, the philosophical bases of structuralism can be found to be highly instrumental. Teaching structures or structural items some/any, has/have got, there is/are can be highly fruitful classroom activities. Students can be benefited in a great deal by such approach. Therefore, pattern teaching is highly preferred and encouraged by ELT experts. Teaching, I, we, go, play, they, like, etc, before we teach them statements. Later on if they are habituated or used to with certain structures, then teachers have to give them some question forms. The effectiveness of teaching can be noticed there.
Even too long sentences can be broken down into small language bits and students are taught, it is called structural grading. Teachers can run a numbers of student centered activities to enliven the classroom environment guided by structuralism. Roman Jakobson’s the marked-unmarked dichotomy, the distinctive feature and binary opposition can prove useful approaches in the teaching learning activities especially through structures for English as second language learners.
The conclusive points of structuralism in connection to English language teaching focuses being instrumental on: the enhancement of thinking and imagination, comprehension, memory and uniqueness of language learning to the human species. The introduction of notions like surface and deed structure, and the knowledge in it makes students imaginative and creative. They can disambiguate the ambiguous sentences and phrases, and remove the impurities of vague sentence patterns. So, the teacher can conduct various student centered activities being based on the structure. Teaching phonemes for the learners of second language may be one of the difficult aspects of language teaching learning.Structural linguistics has come up with a notion that is commonly called distinctive features that has been found to be supportive in connection to language learning. The introduction of the IPA, along with phonetic alphabets is said to be mile stone in the sphere of language teaching. The full back up for the completion of IPA chart behind it is structuralism.
Even teacher can teach a long sentence breaking into pieces. Teaching the sentence into making parts makes a child to learn far better. That kind of teaching is also purely based on structuralism approach of teaching and can be highly useful in reference to the memory of the children. Thus, the thematic points of views of structuralism can be adapted in history of ELT in Nepal such as OSS approach is also one of the by-product of structuralism and structuralist philosophy that is also found to be a part and parcel of English language classroom in Nepal.
References
Brumfit C. J. and Johnson K. 1986 (ed.). The Communicative Approach to
Language Teaching. ELBS/OUP
Nunan D. 2003 (ed.) Practical English Language Teaching. Mc GrawHill
Crystal D. 2003. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Blackwell Publishing
Frolov I. 1984 (ed.). Dictionary of Philosophy. Moscow
Gray M. 1999. A Dictionary of Literary Terms. Longman York Press. Singapore
Kuper A. and Kuper J. (edis.) The Social Science Encyclopedia. Rutledge. London
and New York. (2nd edi)
Marshall G. (edis.)1998. A Dictionary of Sociology. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.
Mautner T. 2004. A Dictionary of Philosophy. Blackwell Publishers Inc.
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Richards J. C. and Rodgers T. S. 2010. Approaches and Methods in Language
Teaching. Cambridge: Replika Press Pvt. Ltd. India.
Tyson, L. 2008. Critical theory today/ A User-Friendly Guide. Routledge
Thank you very much for your email that made me to write this email.
"Every block of stone has a statue inside it and it is the task of the sculptor to discover it." - Michaelangelo
This quote also emphasizes on carefully looking inside, discovering oneself because meditation and concentration is not like that of a cup of tea or coffee. For concentration and meditation, one has to go through an intricate journey of observing himself and herself within him and her. It is a creative and difficult enterprise therefore, a few people attain it. Why not so many? So, we can say concentration does not begin with something which is away from you, but it begins with which is accessible, which is proximate to you, which is close and easily available to you. In this sense, the realization and internalization of one’s true self is meditation or contemplation. It is a kind of thoughtful control and making the one-pointedness or directedness of human senses along with mind.
Meditation is not a wonder but it brings a sense and amazement of wonder in any sphere of life if it is actually with a reasonable way practised. It is a practice of mindfulness that is to be right which is called ‘right mindfulness’ in the language of Buddha. This mindfulness helps people to see themselves in a state of ‘the world in itself’ crashing the ‘veil of Maya.’ This veil of Maya is created because of one’s egoism; Buddha says it is the matter of ignorance. So, ego can be extinguished if you go through the touchstone of meditation and concentration. It is merely a digging oneself deep down and realizing the impermanence of the life, possessions, world and so on. Obviously we can be the victims of frustrations, depression, high ambition, anger, stress, and strain as you rightly indicated so far. What is the solution?
It is the practice of mind. In meditation whatever the different modes of meditation one practises with, it tries to control the reckless nature of mind. Our mind having such nature is therefore termed as ‘monkey mind.’ The cessation of monkey mind can be possible through Yoga, Patanjali (propagator of Yoga in the eastern hemisphere) says while defining Yoga. Even Nietzsche says in his philosophical treatise, On the Genealogy of Morals, we ourselves are the sources of knowledge but we have been seeking and searching a great deal outside like a deer does, not realizing the fragrance is coming out of its own naval.
Are you seeking something outside of yourself? Stop seeking outside. Know yourself it is how you should not go searching far away. Think you are the one the creator of yourself. Your activities are responsible for your happiness or sadness, pains or pleasure, and so on. You are the own who can turn your life whether into the garden of flowers or the dessert of sand. Therefore, believe on you and determine the situation in and around you.
I think in this regard, we should not forget Swami Vivekananda as he stated the power of concentration somewhere else as, ‘The impossible turns into possible with the help of right and cautious mode of concentration.’ I think the readers will entertain this idea.
One of the schools of philosophy says, ‘we are the conditioned being in the conditioned world.’ If anything breaks that conditionality, it is meditation and concentration. Perhaps this is the way of bridging the gap between soul and body. So, I request you to have a genuine practice with mind detaching yourself from this mundane world and try to attain prefect equanimity. Then surely you can light yourself, enlighten yourself as Buddha says, ‘Light the candle within you.’
With Earnest Regards,
Krishna Kumar Yogi
Kathmandu, Nepal
[It is an email response written to Rob info@eastern-philosophy-and-meditation.com on Thursday, 28 April 2011, 10:29 as I got an email on Be Happy No Matter The Circumstances (A Lesson From Michaelangelo)].
With an unprecedented culture of intolerance, individualism and materialism the drug addiction has come as a global threat next to terrorism everywhere, no Nepal remains the exception. Pertaining to an easy availability of drugs everywhere it can be also said that drugs has established trans-boundary imperialism. No clear demarcation can be drawn to show an unnecessary use of drugs, drug addiction and drug smuggling. Taking drugs has been the ritual routine for most of the urban teenagers and youth. In Nepal, teenage boys perceive drug taking as an inevitable part of being modern, and fashionable. Thus, taking drugs has been terribly increasing.
The existent problems of drugs and other related evils in Nepal are adding a new avenue in the field of social problems. It is unfortunate for all Nepalis; a noticeable numbers of youth and teenagers depend upon the drugs. A rough estimation says more than one lakh people are found to be involved in drug addiction. They are found to be assembling together in lonely areas, especially at temple surroundings to be intoxicated and hallucinated. This culture of drugs dependence harms not only the individuals who take it, but the entire society and the nation get disturbances and blockages in its prosperous path of development. Similarly, it may be thought to be unfortunate and absurd in the sense that to whom the whole country has to handover its responsibility for the nation building, thinking who are the strong pillars of development, social reformation, and carrier of peace and prosperity are themselves (youth) found to be worsening day by day. Even the 6 years old estimation by the United Nations 2004 reflects the rapid picture of drug takers stating ‘More than 200 million people abuse drugs worldwide.’ This estimation might be widening doubtlessly to speculate the population with drugs abuse throughout the world.
The question of use and or misuse of drugs in an appropriate and or inappropriate way determines whether an individual has been used or abused drugs. Professor Leonard Goldberg keeps forward his views about drug abuse in an article entitled, Drug Abuse in Sweden as: ‘Drug abuse means essentially the use of drugs for the non-medical purposes or in doses usually excessive amounts not founded on ethical medical grounds.’ If the drugs are used for non-medical purposes, and in excessive doses , it is said to be drugs abuse. Drug abusers are not found to be following the ethical medical grounds even they are mushroomingly buying and selling drugs without physicians’ prescriptions. Drugs are chemical, psycho-active stimulant or tranquilizing substances that alter the function of an organism and give hallucinatory effects are used for the prevention, treatment, and alleviation of disease. In this sense, drugs are special chemical compounds to diagnose, prevent, or treat certain kinds of diseases. The drugs is termed to be medicine with the doctor’s prescription, otherwise it remains to be drugs.
Drug abuse is also called drug addiction or substance abuse which is a state of periodic or chronic intoxication produced by the repeated consumption of a drug with a tendency to increase the dose is essential to explain which is said to be drug habituation. In a generic term, taking of drugs being an integral part of habit is drug habituation. Afterwards, an individual reaches to a next new stage called drug addiction. It is a condition resulting from the repeated consumption of a drug where an individual reaches to the extreme of drug taking habit. It may be called drug abuse where an individual makes bad use of drugs that harms his/her health massively. An individual reaching up to this state can not stand on his/her own; they must have to depend upon drugs. Addiction is often defined as a habitual repetition of excessive behavior that a person is unable or unwilling to stop, despite its harmful consequences upon him/her.
G.S. Chopara and Paranjeet Singh Chopora in a paper, Studies on 300 Indian Drug Addicts with Special Reference to Psychological Aspects, Etiology and Treatment say the following as strong factors behind drug taking:
i. Association, contagion, curiosity, euphoria, personality problems
ii. To alleviate symptoms of disease
iii. To overcome fatigue and stress
Smoking is a major door through which an individual enters into other terribly Hellic life experiences. Of course, smoking is hazardous to human health. Though deliberately knowing this maxim, still there is a big population in Nepal and throughout the world who enjoy smoking. Smoking in the Nepalese context seems to transfer as a fashion tip. Basically, school goers and plus 2 goers are found to be with this habit of smoking. It is the vivid reality that the youthful addicts often begin by smoking. They may be attracted by alluring advertisements. The false advertisements such as: ‘smoking makes you a king’ may create illusion. Alluring with such illusion, in a long run, they take smoking as a habit of. Those smokers start to use gradually hemp, and other forms of drugs and they remain in the terrible trap of drug addiction.
The doors and windows, an individual slides on into the drug habituation and drug addiction are of distinct nature and attributes. The pulling and pushing factors that drag somebody to the dungeon ditch of drugs are explained below briefly:
Pulling Factors
There are pluralistic pulling factors that cause an individual to drug taking habits and ultimately s/he becomes a drug addict. The description is as given below:
a. To quieten the curiosity:
Generally those who are in teen age or adolescence stage, they want to quieten their curiosity about the drugs, and they begin taking drugs. After a long run, they become habituated with drugs taking and can not come back from it though they want it. An individual, thus is dragged to the deep ditch of drugs.
b. A false wish to be a hero: Some teenage boys and youth are haunted by an ego becoming a hero, so this tendency also works behind drug taking and drug addiction. The question of falsity to become a hero goes into a vain. The ghost of heroism that they cling into, does nothing in reality. They realize when it is delayed. What can they do? They have no alternative except taking drugs as they can not give up the drugs.
c. Experience everything and be a human: There is a school of thought; which is foremost among the teenagers and youth: an individual should have an experience of everything how it looks like, how it tastes like and so on. With this tune teenagers and youth can be touched a great deal and gradually, they can start taking drugs as a part of gaining experience of every type. They forget the innate nature of drugs, i.e. once you take it you never forget to take it twice and thrice. Ultimately it turns into a habit. So, it is difficult to give it up.
d. High degree of expectation: Teenagers and youth who have involved in drug addiction are found to be with high expectation. Their family can not fulfill their superficial expectation as a result they start to take the help of drugs.
e. Bad company: It is said that an individual’s behaviour is shaped as per the friends they are with. Teenagers trust on their peer groups rather than their parents. Good company creates the good atmosphere to be good, whereas bad company worsens the life. Those with bad habits such as taking drugs, involving in theft, robbery, killings, murdering and other criminal activities teach, and or pressurize other simple friends to be the same. So, they assimilate into this sort of group.
f. As a part of mimic: Learning happens stronger by seeing. What teenagers and youth see and then they do. Some youth are attracted by the advertisements. As an integral part of their life activities, they imitate what they see in and around them and easily they make the habit of drug taking and after a long time, they turn into drug addicts.
Pushing Factors
As similar as pulling factors, there are certain factors which are thought to be the causative factors of drug addiction. These components push an individual to drug addictions; that are explained below briefly:
a. No good achievement: Teenagers and youth are highly ambitious. It is not negative to be highly ambitious, they do not work in order to meet their expectations.Therefore, they become frustrated with their life. They have a strong sense of guilt and get depressed as they can not gain as they were expecting before. Not having the satisfactory attainment, they start to take drugs, thus it is one of the major pushing factors for teenagers and youth to drug addiction.
b. Stress and strain: Teenagers and youth do not take the surrounding with an ease. As a result, there may arise a lot of problems. Neither they can escape from the problems nor can they be capable enough to face them. It adds an unnecessary burden to them. To get relief from such stress and strain they are pushed to drugs addiction. Even wars, conflicts of various nature are causes of drug addiction that drive people to drug taking habit.
c. Mental tension: Prominent thinker, Rene Descartes once said human being is a thinking being. It is natural for humans to have mental pressure, tension and problems. Mental tension is an on-going process within the human mind. To get relief from mental tension, teenagers and youth take drugs which is not a long time solution.
d. Break down in love affairs: Teenagers and youth give much more priority to love affairs. They do not take it seriously. If they have some difficulty such as the absence mutual understanding and, respect with their loved ones, their webs of love go on crisis. Thus the male victims of such love affairs begin to take drugs.
e. Bad family environment: It is the family environment where a child learns to be a dignified person and or to be a drug addict. Bad family environment here refers to the absence of peace and only the presence of violence and, disturbances. Good environment gives the basis to good life foundation. Whereas, bad family environment drags an individual back to the Hell. The lack of proper love and affection by parents to a teenager leads to a voyage to be a drug addict with a deviated behaviour show up.
It is my humble appeal to everyone who has become an inevitable part of drug addiction, if you can do. Dare to come out of the dreadful ditch of addiction and beautify the life, beauty the locality and the nation. The entire beauty of the universe depends solely upon you, an individual. Therefore, do not desertify the life rather try to make it more productive, constructive and fertile making an oasis. Let us orient ourselves how much we can for the rethinking and reformation of the nation which is an urgent howl of the time.
References
Basic Facts about the United Nations (2004):United Nations Department of Public
Information
Bulletin on Narcotics. Vol. XVII, No. 2, April-June 1965, UN
_________________. Vol. XVII, No. 3, July-Sept.1965, UN
_________________.Vol. XX, No. 1, Jan-March 1968, UN
_________________.Vol. XVIII, No. 1, Jan-March 1998, UN
Marshall G. (edis.)1998. A Dictionary of Sociology. Oxford, New York: OUP.
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Nepal, a bimonthly Magazine published by GON,
Information and Communication Ministry Department,
Health services and sectors provided to patients are highly criticised in Nepal. Though the frequent blames upon health sectors may not appear fair and balanced, a numbers of criticisms critics curiously make indicate that there are genuine reasons behind their fault finding. Criticisms may not be for the purpose of their ‘own sake’, they do revail the reality as well. Health workers’ nasty and intolerable behaviour, divided mentality, orientationless treatment and the reactions of patients dissatisfactions on their service causes criticisms in reference to health institutions in Nepal. The recurring cases of corruptions, criticisms, superfaciality seem to be something retualized routine for health related institutions and its heads which characterize with their underlying problems.
