Pedagogical Conclusion from Structuralism for ELT and its Implications in the History of ELT in Nepal
Introduction
In a generic sense, pedagogical conclusion from structuralism for English language teaching refers to the points of synopsis made out of structuralism regarding the science or profession of teaching. In another word, we can say how structuralism can be found to be useful and can contribute in connection to English language teaching in a nutshell is called the pedagogical conclusion from structuralism for English language teaching. As teaching is regarded to be a profession of complicated nature, definitely English language teaching in Nepalese context is really challenging that demands much more physical or psychological effort along with many others. The teaching of English language has become challenging rather than being rewarding which is a stark reality in Nepalese context. There may be multiple reasons behind it what makes teaching English language challenging in a real sense.
In order to ease the process of teaching language, there emerges some theories, approaches, methods and techniques that help a great deal in this regard which are the outcomes of prominent linguists, grammarians, phoneticians, semanticians, pragmaticians, theorists, psychologists, experts in teaching fields and so on. Regarding how approaches and methods help in language teaching Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers say, ‘The study of approaches and methods provides teachers with a view of how the field of language teaching has evolved.’ Further they say, ‘Approaches and methods can be studied not as prescriptions for how to teach but as a source of well-practices, which teachers can adapt or implement on their own needs. Experience in using different teaching approaches and methods can provide teachers with basic teaching skills that they can later add to or supplement as they develop teaching experience (Richards J. C. and Rodgers T. S. /2010: 16). In this way, we need to change our perception reading approaches and methods used in language teaching. Approaches and methods are the sources for the well- practices so that language teaching and learning becomes effective. The effectiveness of language teaching helps immensely in the achievement of learning goals. The sustainability and durability of learning in learners can be noticed tangibly.
It is relevant to talk about how structuralism is evolved, grown up and developed throughout the history of human knowledge as a school or movement. Structuralism was led by the prominent names such as Saussure, Piaget, Levi-Strauss and Barthes. The term structuralism was found to be used in a range of disciplines. It is an -ism which is thought to be the most revolutionary of type as it influences multiple minds and heterogeneous masses of people. It appeared as a movement or a phenomenon in the context of language for our purpose. It is such a method of analysis and organization of concepts in different faculties such as literature, linguistics, anthropology, psychology, etc. It is based on the explicit model of modern linguistics theory. These activities are done in terms of contrasting relations especially binary oppositions among sets of items within conceptual systems. It consists of some Russian formalists like Roman Jakobson and mostly French writers who apply to literature the methods and analytic terms adopted by Ferdinand de Saussure.
Structuralism is a popular theory in language, literature and several other social sciences that considers any text as a structure whose various parts only have meaning when they are considered in relation to each other. Talking about the structure in language, the structural linguistics considers language as a system of related structures. It means language consists of many structures that make up of a common whole having a purpose of conveying the information and messages to the concerned that is to say to speakers and hearers. Language has grammatical structures from the view point of grammar. From the view point of phonemes, there are phonological structures. At a morpheme’s level, it has morphological structures. In terms of a phrase, there are phrase structures and in terms of a clause, there are clause structures. Thus, a language teacher desiring to teach language has to start with a structure, and s/he becomes successful enough in his/her goals.
Structuralism is not only a theory rather than it is a method of analyzing a subject which are in and around us as that of social sciences, psychology, language, literature which concentrates on the structure of a system and the relations between its elements, rather than on the function of those elements. A person who uses structuralist methods is a structuralist. Sassure, Jakobson, Levi Strauss, Piaget, are structuralists as they apply the structural methods in their researches. The seed of structuralism is found to be in Course in General Linguistics, a book published after Sassure’s death on the basis student notes where he focused not on the structural dichotomy langue and parole and later on after a long run, it was called a theory semiotics.
Before we exactly talk about the pedagogical conclusion from structuralism for ELT and its implications in the history of ELT in Nepal is essential to discuss on: ‘what structuralism?’ over here. According to Thomas Mautner structuralism is ‘a kind of theory predominantly concerned with the description of structures. …. ….. The approach is often linked to an assumption that structures-relationships between particulars-rather than the particulars themselves, are basic to reality, to human knowledge, or both.’ (Mautner T. 2004/412,13) ‘Structuralism examines aspects of human society, including language and social institutions, as integrated structures or systems in which the parts have no real existence on their own, but only derive meaning and significance from their place within the system.’ (Martin Gray: 1999) Structuralism is a popular trend in language and literary criticism that focuses on the existence of language on the basis of its basic units such as morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, sentences. Language teaching can be only possible if the language teacher gives every tits and bits of language equal priority and goes ahead in the classroom to teach the students. Martin Gray further says with a citation of example. The basic unit of meaning in language, the phoneme is seen to derive its meaning not from any inherent qualities in itself, but because of its difference from other sounds.
Thus, structuralism is a general approach in various academic disciplines that explores the relationships between fundamental elements of some kind, upon which some higher mental, linguistic, social, cultural etc "structures" are built, through which then meaning is produced within a particular person, system, or culture.
Gordon Marshall under structuralism puts forward his view as:’ Basic to the approach is the idea that we can discern underlying structures behind the often fluctuating and changing appearances of social reality. The model is Saussure’s structural linguistics and the notion that a language can be described in terms of basic set of rules which govern the combination of sounds to produce meanings.’
Structuralism appeared in academic psychology for the first time in the 19th century and then reappeared in the second half of the 20th century, when it grew to become one of the most popular approaches in the academic fields that are concerned with analyzing language, culture, and society. The work of Ferdinand de Saussure concerning linguistics is generally considered to be a starting point of the 20th century structuralism. The term of "structuralism" itself appeared in relation to French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss' works, and gave rise, in France, to the "structuralist movement", which gathered thinkers such as psychoanalyst Lacan, Foucault or Althusser and Poulantzas' structural Marxism. One should note that almost all members of this so-called movement denied that they were part of it.
Defining structuralism Dictionary of Philosophy, 1984 says, structuralism, a concrete scientific methodological trend setting research the task of revealing the structure of the objects. Structuralism was evolved by some humanities, linguistics, literary criticism, psychology, etc.) at the beginning of 20th century as a reaction to positivist evolutionism. It uses the structural methods of research produced by mathematics, physics, and other natural sciences.
There is a significant contribution of many scholars associated in the promotion of structuralism have really devoted in different fields of human concerns. Talking especially the roles by various structuralists, there comes the name of Ferdinand de Saussure in linguistics, Levi Strauss in ethnology, and L. S. Vygotsky and Jean Piajet in psychology are considered prominent. Particularly talking on Saussure’s linguistic approach that focuses on examining how the elements of language related to each other in the present that is, 'synchronically' rather than 'diachronically'. In the development of system of linguistic signs he argues that signs were composed of two parts, a signifier and another is signified. The signifier is the sound pattern of a word, either in mental projection - as when we silently recite lines from a poem to ourselves - or in actual, physical realization as part of a speech act and a signified is the concept
Tyson thinks ‘structuralism as a method of systematizing human experience that is sued in many different fields of study: for example, linguistics, anthropology, sociology, psychology, and literary studies.’ (Lios T./210) She thinks structures are not physical entities; they are conceptual frameworks that we use to organize and understand physical entities. A structure is any conceptual system. To be a structure, according to her is following three properties are essential: 1) wholeness, 2) transformation, and 3) self-regulation. Wholeness means the system functions as a unit; it is not merely a collection of independent items. The whole is different form the sum of its total parts. Transformation means that the system is not a static, it is dynamic, capable of change. New material is always being structured by the system. Language as a structural system is capable of transforming its basic components (phonemes) into new utterances (words and sentences). Self-regulation means that the transformations of which a structure is capable never lead beyond its own structural system. The elements endangered by transformations (for example, new linguistic utterances) always belong to the system and obey its laws.
To Mautner, ‘there are three characteristics by which structures differ from mere aggregates: 1) the nature of an element depends, at least in part, on its place in the structure, i.e. its interrelations with other elements (holism); 2) the structure is not static, but allows for change within. For instance, new sentences can be created within a language-structure (dynamism); 3) the characteristic of the structures can be understood without reference to factors external to it. We can understand the function of a word, say ‘dog’ within a language-structure independently of whether any dogs exist (autarchy)’
There were many more who contributed in the field of structuralism. Among them, the Prague School structuralism is found to be devoted to phonemics. The Prague School sought to examine how sounds were related. The linguists under this school determined that the inventory of sounds in a language could be analyzed in terms of a series of contrasts, which is said to be distinctive features. Thus in English the sounds /t/ and /d/ represent distinct phonemes because there are cases (minimal pairs) where the contrast between the two is the only difference between two distinct words (e.g. 'tog' and 'dog'). This approach which is the by-product of structuralism is regarded standard in linguistics; it was revolutionary at the time.
Theoretical Perspective
Theoretically, structuralism does a great contribution in the various fields of human concerns as it has been influential in various affairs of human beings. Even in the teaching of English language, it is found to be remarkably important. While we talk about teaching learning activities either we have to discuss on psychology or linguistics of structural mode which is perceived as a branch of linguistics that deals mostly with the structures. Structural linguistics is that branch of linguistics emphasizing the significance of the interrelations between the elements that constitute a linguistic system. Many linguists define language as a system of system that has to be taught systematically. Obviously, we can’t teach language in an unorganized way without following a particular system, without a systematic order to abide and so on.
During the structural description of structuralism, the word ‘structural’ means to be for David Crystal (2003), ‘Within linguistics, ‘structural’ will be found in several contexts in phonology, grammar and semantics. Structural(ist) grammar, as a general term, is now a largely dated conception of grammatical analysis, though the emphases which characterized it may still be seen in several areas of applied linguistic studies…….. , and the term ‘structural’ is often given a special status as a part the exposition of grammatical model, e.g. the notion of structural description in Transformational Grammar.’
Structuralism has a root on a word that is structure. Structure is perceived in a generic sense as the way a thing or something is organized to make a complete whole. Structure for David Crystal is a term applied to the main abstract characteristic of a semiotic system. A language for example is a structure, in the sense that it is a network of interrelated units, the meaning of parts being specifiable only with reference top the whole. In this sense, the terms ‘structure’ and ‘system’ are often synonymous……… -as in ‘language is a structural system’ –is a tautology.
Theoretically, Ferdinand de Sassure laid the foundation to structural linguistics. It was developed between 1913 and 1915. Before Saussure, language was studied diachronically or in terms of the history of changes individual words over time. Saussure came up with a new view that was not to understand language as a collection of individual words with individual histories but as a structural system of relationships among words as they are used at a given point of time. To be exact, language should be studied synchronically.
Regarding the language study, there are many innovative approaches have come into existence with the exploration of new dimensions into human knowledge. These approaches are really thought to be boon in language study. The notion of synchronic and diachronic study of language is one of the dichotomies for the first time introduced by a prominent linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in his book ‘Course in General Linguistics’ in the entire linguistic field. Synchronic study of language is the study of the systematic interrelations of components of a single language at a particular time. For example, the language of present day Kathmandu can be the matter of synchronic study. It studies language systematically in an organized manner. The relationship among the parts and parcels contributing a particular language are the matters studied under the synchronic linguistics. The terms synchronic study of language or synchronic linguistics are the same semantically.
The synchronic study of language is more problematic than that of diachronic study of language: it is a state at an arbitrarily chosen time on the historical path language has traveled and route which it is going to continue traveling. Synchronic study of language is the description of a particular language at some point in time. If the language is studied on the basis of at certain stand point of time that is what we call the synchronic study of language. It is the theoretical study of language describing it being at a point. As it being the theoretical matter, it can be more complex. Synchronic linguistics ignores the state of change taken place in language. Saussure has put his central stress on synchronic study of language. It is given primary priority or preliminary emphasis to diachronic study of language. Most of the synchronic descriptions are of contemporary language states. Diachronic linguistics studies the historical aspect of language. It is an analysis of the revolution of a family of language or the changes within a particular language, over a long period of time. A study of Nepali language from the time of the earliest records, from the pre-mature state of origination in Sinja of Jumla to the present day or study of the change from old time of the earliest records to present through time is all about diachronic study of language. The aim of general synchronic linguistics is to set up the fundamental principles of any idiosyncratic system in language. The constituents of any language state are extensively studied in course of synchronic study of language. It studies the general property of signs. The general properties of the signs are considered as an integral part of synchrony. The system of signs is a more complex linguistic system. It is also thought that language is symbolic. Language involves signs in its system. Signs are entries that represent for other entries the way a plus sign (+) as it stand certain mathematical operation. While talking about signs in language, they are the sequences of sounds though these can be transferred into visual signs as in writing or the gestural signs of language of the deaf. It belongs to general grammar because only through language states that the different relations affecting grammar are established. Synchronic linguistics or synchronic study of language is generally much more difficult than the study of historical linguistics because historical linguistics studies language how a particular language has been altered chronologically. Synchronic aspect of language embodies such a study which explains in detail a language-state. Studying the language state under synchronic study of language means the practice of disregarding changes, alterations, modifications and modulations about the language. It does not regard even the changes with too little importance taken into account. It can be compared like just as mathematicians disregard infinitesimal qualities in certain calculations such as logarithms.
The study of synchronic study of language has the following attributes:
1. Synchronic study of language is a modern and scientific approach of studying language. It is the study of language that consists of scientific study of language establishing language as a science.
2. It is horizontal and structural. It is a static study of language.
3. It concentrates on underlying structure of language
4. It is general and applicable to all the languages
5. It covers the short time span
6. It focuses how meanings and utterances are generated ‘how’ is focused.
7. It is a language study as a whole
8. Synchronic study of language establishes language as a self –sufficient and autonomous system
9. It identifies both langue and parole linguistic creativity explored
10. Synchronic study of language is the study of language ‘state’ of particular time and space.
11. Synchronic study of language does have challenges of time, space and accuracy. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Sanskrit and Latin.
According to Crystal, this application of the term to paradigmatic relationships is not as widespread as the syntagmatic conception of ‘structure’. After the introduction and hot discussion about structuralism in the language readership, language is then understood as fusion of pluralistic strings of structures. Later on, phonological, syntactic, morphological, semantic, pragmatic, structures along with word structure, phrase structure, clause structure and sentence structures were came into existence. More importantly, syllable structure was perceived as a string of consonants and vowels.
What Structuralism Consists of as a Theory?
Structuralism as a theory emphasizes on:
a. The structure of language itself produces reality; that we can think only through language, and therefore our perceptions of reality are all framed by and determined by the structure of language not more than that.
b. That language speaks us; that the source of meaning is not an individual's experience or being, but the sets of oppositions and operations, the signs and grammars that govern language. Meaning doesn't come from individuals, but from the system that governs what any individual can do within it.
c. Rather than seeing the individual as the center of meaning, structuralism places the structure at the center, it's the structure that originates or produces meaning, not the individual self.
d. Language in particular is the center of self and meaning; I can only say "I" because I inhabit a system of language in which the position of subject is marked by the first personal pronoun, hence my identity is the product of the linguistic system I occupy.
e. The notions like syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships, language and parole, signifier and signified, synchronic and diachronic linguistics, underlying and surface structures came into ELT context.
e. Language is signs based science where there are relationships which can be either syntagmatic or paradigmatic ones. Linguistic signs by nature linear. Syntagmatic relationship is also termed as linear, sequential, horizontal or successive relationship, whereas, paradigmatic relationship is known with words like associative, substitutive vertical relationship.
Pedagogical Implications
Pedagogical implications here refer to the preparation of pre-requisites which is suggested or recommended before the actual application of something takes place. How can structuralism contribute for the purpose of teaching learning activities? Definitely, it can be one of the cardinal questions. While describing every type of theory no matter either psychological or linguistic; it is desirable to find out its usefulness, its implications and applications. Structural linguistic theory according to Moulton 1963 can have the following implications in the horizon of language teaching:
a. The priority is given to spoken rather than written language.
b. Language learning is basically a matter of developing a set of habits through drilling.
c. Teach the language, not about the language (avoid teaching grammar rules: Get learners to develop their skills through drill and practice- teach through analogy not analysis)
With the knowledge of structuralism , a teacher can teach words of various types in an easy and effective way. The teaching of words through prefixes and suffixes and possibilities to generate many words can really be helpful for language teachers and learners. Morphemes, morphs, allomorphs, identifying morphemes in a language, elements of words structures, word, stem, base, root , suffix, prefix, infix are some notions related to structuralism. These can have a great importance in language teaching. Teachers with knowledge about them make them proficient to teach.
Teaching grammatical units in a hierarchy a word constituting out of morphemes, a phrase constituting out of words, a clause constituting out of phrases, a sentence constituting out of clauses make a great sense in language teaching.
Structure-Oriented Classroom Activities
Language is a complex phenomenon in itself and teaching language as a whole is too complex entity. Therefore, structuralists give importance to teach language through some structures. As a school of thought that prescribes to teach students through parts to whole. In this sense, the philosophical bases of structuralism can be found to be highly instrumental. Teaching structures or structural items some/any, has/have got, there is/are can be highly fruitful classroom activities. Students can be benefited in a great deal by such approach. Therefore, pattern teaching is highly preferred and encouraged by ELT experts. Teaching, I, we, go, play, they, like, etc, before we teach them statements. Later on if they are habituated or used to with certain structures, then teachers have to give them some question forms. The effectiveness of teaching can be noticed there.
Even too long sentences can be broken down into small language bits and students are taught, it is called structural grading. Teachers can run a numbers of student centered activities to enliven the classroom environment guided by structuralism. Roman Jakobson’s the marked-unmarked dichotomy, the distinctive feature and binary opposition can prove useful approaches in the teaching learning activities especially through structures for English as second language learners.
The conclusive points of structuralism in connection to English language teaching focuses being instrumental on: the enhancement of thinking and imagination, comprehension, memory and uniqueness of language learning to the human species. The introduction of notions like surface and deed structure, and the knowledge in it makes students imaginative and creative. They can disambiguate the ambiguous sentences and phrases, and remove the impurities of vague sentence patterns. So, the teacher can conduct various student centered activities being based on the structure. Teaching phonemes for the learners of second language may be one of the difficult aspects of language teaching learning.Structural linguistics has come up with a notion that is commonly called distinctive features that has been found to be supportive in connection to language learning. The introduction of the IPA, along with phonetic alphabets is said to be mile stone in the sphere of language teaching. The full back up for the completion of IPA chart behind it is structuralism.
Even teacher can teach a long sentence breaking into pieces. Teaching the sentence into making parts makes a child to learn far better. That kind of teaching is also purely based on structuralism approach of teaching and can be highly useful in reference to the memory of the children. Thus, the thematic points of views of structuralism can be adapted in history of ELT in Nepal such as OSS approach is also one of the by-product of structuralism and structuralist philosophy that is also found to be a part and parcel of English language classroom in Nepal.
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